Language: Gricean Pragmatics발음듣기
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Language: Gricean Pragmatics
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(intro music) My name is Karen Lewis, and I'm an assistant professor of philosophy at Barnard College, Columbia University.발음듣기
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Pragmatics is the study of how people use language in real conversations, and in books and emails and other sorts of media of language use.발음듣기
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Pragmatics, on the one hand, is distinguished from semantics, on the other hand, which studies the literal meaning of the words or sentences that we use.발음듣기
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My mother lives there, you're gonna understand that I'm going to Montreal in order to visit my mother. but I didn't actually say that.발음듣기
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I just stated two facts: one, "I'm going to Montreal this week," and second, "my mother lives in Montreal."발음듣기
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Here's another example. Suppose somebody asks me "Are you coming to the party on Friday?" and I say "I have to work."발음듣기
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But you're naturally gonna understand my reply of "I have to work on Friday" as being a reason for me not coming to the party.발음듣기
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In some cases, we can even use the very same words in different situations and communicate completely different things.발음듣기
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For example, if a teacher writes on a report card for a first grade student "Bob has wonderful penmanship," it's gonna communicate just that: Bob is doing very well at handwriting in class.발음듣기
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On the other hand, suppose a professor's writing a letter of recommendation for one of her philosophy students applying for a prestigious award in philosophy.발음듣기
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Well, in addition to communicating something about Bob's penmanship, that's gonna communicate that the professor doesn't think Bob is a very good philosopher or deserving of the award.발음듣기
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Herbert Paul Grice, a philosopher who lived from 1913 to 1988, was the first who tried to explain this phenomenon in his paper "Logic and Conversation."발음듣기
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Grice invented the term "implicature." An implicature is whatever is meant, but not literally said.발음듣기
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One very important kind of implicature that he talked about is conversational implicature: implicatures that come about due to general features of conversation.발음듣기
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And remember here again, when we're talking about conversations, we're often including things like books, letter-writing and so on.발음듣기
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And even in the most casual of conversations, there's generally some sort of goal or purpose to the conversation.발음듣기
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Grice took all these observations and proposed that what we're doing is sort of tacitly following these rational rules of conversation.발음듣기
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Rational rules are rules that people follow because we're rational creatures, as opposed to, say, conventional rules.발음듣기
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So for example, some countries drive on the left side of the road and some countries, like ours, drive on the right.발음듣기
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But the fact that we follow such rules at all, that we don't just drive in any direction we want, that's a rational rule.발음듣기
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That's how we get to where we're going all in one piece, as opposed to crashing into each other.발음듣기
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Grice summarized these observations, this idea that conversations are cooperative activities among rational agents, with his central rule that he called the "Cooperative Principle."발음듣기
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The cooperative principle is "Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.발음듣기
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Grice further explained the cooperative principle by giving four rules, or maxims, that people generally follow in conversation.발음듣기
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Recall that these rules, or maxims, are not supposed to be conventional rules that we happen to follow in conversations, but rules that govern rational cooperative activity in general.발음듣기
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The first is the Maxim of Quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange, and do not make your contribution more informative than is required.발음듣기
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For example, if we're talking about going to see a movie tonight and we're trying to decide what movie to see, and you ask me "Okay, what's playing?", following the first part of the maxim of quantity, I should make my contribution as informative as is required.발음듣기
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I'm going to read you, say, all the times of the movies at our local theater tonight, as opposed to just reading you the time of one movie that's playing.발음듣기
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But I'm also gonna follow the second maxim of quantity, "do not make your contribution more informative "than is required."발음듣기
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I'm not, for example, gonna tell you the times of all the movies playing across the entire country.발음듣기
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Even though in some sense it's an answer to your question of "What movies are playing tonight?" it's more informative than is required by the conversational purpose.발음듣기
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So for example, if we're fixing a car together and you need four screws to screw in the next piece, I'm not gonna hand you two screws, which is not enough, or six screws, which is too many.발음듣기
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The next maxim is the Maxim of Quality, which is simply "Try to make your contribution "one that is true, "do not say what you believe to be false, "and do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence."발음듣기
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So, back to the movie example, if we're talking about going to see a movie tonight and we're trying to decide what to see and you ask me what's playing, I shouldn't tell you something that I know is not playing, something I know to be false.발음듣기
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Or I shouldn't tell you a certain movie's playing at a certain time if I haven't looked it up yet, if I don't have adequate evidence.발음듣기
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Again, this is a rule that we follow in regular cooperative activity outside of conversation.발음듣기
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It's just something that rational people, when they're trying to cooperate with each other, will do.발음듣기
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For example, if we're trying to bake a cake together and it's time to add the sugar, I shouldn't give you the salt, pretending that it's sugar.발음듣기
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The next maxim is the Maxim of Relation, which is simply "Be relevant: "say things that are relevant, "don't say things that are irrelevant."발음듣기
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So again, if we're talking about going to see a movie tonight, I shouldn't start telling you about a good book that I read, unless of course I signal a change in conversation.발음듣기
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Similarly, if we're trying to bake a cake and it's time to add the sugar, I shouldn't pass you a book, or even an oven mitt, even though the oven mitt may be relevant at a later point in the cake-making.발음듣기
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The final maxim has to do not with the content of what we say, but with the way in which you say it, and that's the Maxim of Manner.발음듣기
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More specifically, Grice says "We should be perspicuous: "avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, "be brief, and be orderly."발음듣기
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So, for example, if we're talking again about going to see a movie tonight and a particular movie's playing at the local theater, I should just say so, namely something like "Movie X is playing at our local theater." and not something like "Our local theater will be displaying a series of still images on a reel tonight."발음듣기
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If I say something using an odd expression like that, you're gonna start thinking I'm trying to communicate something else, something like "I don't think a real movie's playing at the theater tonight."발음듣기
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Similarly, if we're baking a cake together and it's time to add the sugar, I should just directly hand you the sugar.발음듣기
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These maxims, together with the cooperative principle, explain how people communicate more than the literal meanings of their words in conversation.발음듣기
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People assume tacitly that the speaker's obeying all the maxims she can and the cooperative principle.발음듣기
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These facts, plus facts about the purpose of the conversation, the context of the conversation, and the general things we know about the world, our world knowledge, allow us to calculate these implicatures, these things that are hinted at, suggested, or otherwise communicated over and above the literal meanings of our words.발음듣기
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So let's return to the examples from the beginning and see how Grice will explain how those things get communicated.발음듣기
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My mother lives there, you're gonna understand that I'm going to Montreal in order to visit my mother.발음듣기
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You assume I'm being a cooperative conversational participant, and only saying things that, for example, are relevant to each other.발음듣기
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Well, the only way that the fact that my mother lives in Montreal is relevant to my going to Montreal is that I'm going to Montreal to visit my mother.발음듣기
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So again, suppose somebody asks me "Are you coming to the party on Friday?" and I answer "I have to work," and you understand that I'm not going to the party because I have to work.발음듣기
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Well again, you're gonna assume that I'm observing the cooperative principle and all the maxims.발음듣기
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And again, I'd be infringing on the maxim "Be relevant" if my statement "I have to work" wasn't somehow an answer to the question "Are you going to the party on Friday?"발음듣기
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I would also be infringing on the maxim of quantity, "Be as informative as required," since I wouldn't have provided an answer to the question if "I have to work" wasn't an answer to the question "Are you going to the party on Friday?"발음듣기
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And finally, we can employ a little bit of our world knowledge there because we know that if someone's at work, they can't also be at a party.발음듣기
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Similarly, if we go back to the letter of recommendation case, recall that a professor's writing a letter of recommendation for a student who wants to apply for a prestigious award in philosophy, and the professor writes nothing but "Bob has wonderful penmanship."발음듣기
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This communicates that the professor has nothing great to say about Bob's ability in philosophy, because he violates the first maxim of quantity, "Say as much as is required."발음듣기
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Clearly in a letter of recommendation for a prestigious philosophy award, much more is required than information about the student's penmanship.발음듣기
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And again, he also infringes on the maxim of relevance, because a student's penmanship is not very relevant to their philosophical ability.발음듣기
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Suppose we had received a package a few days ago and I put it away somewhere, and now you're looking for it and you ask me "Where's the package?"발음듣기
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I can't remember where I put it, so I say "I can't remember where I put it, but I remember that it's either in the attic or the bedroom," and so I say "It's in the attic or the bedroom."발음듣기
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Why is that? Well, if I knew where the package is, by the first maxim of quantity, I should have told you so.발음듣기
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If I knew for sure it was in the attic, saying "It's in the attic" would have been the appropriate response.발음듣기
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But in this case, giving the most informative answer, obeying the first maxim of quantity, clashes with maxim of quality which tells me "Don't say things that I know to be false," or "Don't say things for which I lack evidence."발음듣기
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Since I don't remember where I put the package, I don't have enough evidence to assert "It's in the attic," and so I tell you "It's in the attic or the bedroom," and you understand, again, that I don't know which one.발음듣기
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On the other hand, imagine a situation in which we're playing a game of treasure hunt, and you're looking for a package that I've hidden.발음듣기
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You're having a very, very hard time succeeding at this game, and so I give you a hint to help you out.발음듣기
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These are the same words I used in the last scenario, the same words that, in the last scenario, communicated that I didn't know where the package was.발음듣기
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But in this case, given that our conversational purpose is different (we're on a treasure hunt and I have a reason for telling you something less informative), it doesn't communicate that I don't know where the package is.발음듣기
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So again, in this case, the maxim of quantity tells me to tell you something less informative, because for our conversational purpose, the amount of information that's required is something that's less than maximally informative, something that gives you a hint at where the package is, but doesn't tell you exactly where it is.발음듣기
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So again, I've used exactly the same words, but this time, by saying "The package is in the attic or the bedroom,"발음듣기
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