Epistemology: Hume's Skepticism and Induction Part 1

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Epistemology: Hume's Skepticism and Induction Part 1 발음듣기

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(intro music) My name is Daniel Greco and I'm an assistant professor of philosophy at Yale University.발음듣기

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Today's video will concern a topic in epistemology, which is the branch of philosophy that deals with the study of knowledge.발음듣기

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In particular, I'll discuss a version of skepticism, which is the idea that we know a lot less than we ordinarily take ourselves to.발음듣기

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The sort of skepticism I'll discuss is due to David Hume, who was an eighteenth-century Scottish philosopher and historian, and it targets our knowledge of the unobserved.발음듣기

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To get clearer about just what that amounts to, we'll have to start with some examples.발음듣기

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So we ordinarily take ourselves to know lots about things that we haven't directly observed.발음듣기

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For instance, I take it that I know that blue whales are the largest animals on earth.발음듣기

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I bet you know that too.발음듣기

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I take it I know that the Alpha Centauri system is the nearest star system to our own.발음듣기

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I take it I know that there was a man named Napolean who conquered much of Europe.발음듣기

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I also take it I know when the next American presidential election will be.발음듣기

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None of these are things that I've directly observed.발음듣기

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I haven't seen any blue whales.발음듣기

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I certainly haven't seen all other animals on earth to compare them to.발음듣기

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I never met Napoleon, and I haven't observed anything in 2016 yet.발음듣기

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And yet I, and I take it you, ordinarily take myself to know all sorts of things about these matters.발음듣기

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So how do we know these things about stuff that we haven't yet observed?발음듣기

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In some cases it seems pretty easy.발음듣기

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For instance, I know that all triangles, even triangles I haven't yet observed, have three sides.발음듣기

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Or I know that next year, if I have two apples and two oranges, I'll have four pieces of fruit.발음듣기

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What's special about these cases that makes them so easy to know?발음듣기

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The way that Hume put it, they express relations of ideas.발음듣기

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A relation of ideas is something whose denial is inconceivable, or self-contradictory.발음듣기

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Try to imagine a two-sided triangle.발음듣기

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I take it you can't do it.발음듣기

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Or try to imagine a situation where I have two apples and two oranges, nothing else, but where I don't have four pieces of fruit.발음듣기

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Again, I suspect you're gonna have trouble.발음듣기

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Here's another way of getting at the same idea.발음듣기

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Relations of ideas have to be true, no matter how the world turns out. They're necessary truths.발음듣기

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So what does it take to know claims like this?발음듣기

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What does it take to know relations of ideas?발음듣기

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To quote Hume, he said that propositions of this kind are discoverable by the mere operation of thought, without dependence on what is anywhere existent in the universe.발음듣기

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And what does that mean? Why does he think it's true?발음듣기

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I take it the idea is something like this.발음듣기

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If some claim is a relation of ideas, then it will be true no matter what the world is like.발음듣기

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So in order to know that it's true, we don't need to go out and gather evidence about what the world is like.발음듣기

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The evidence might tell us the world is this way rather than that way, but no matter what way the world is like, all triangles will have three sides.발음듣기

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Two pieces of fruit and another two pieces of fruit will make four pieces of fruit.발음듣기

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So if anything at all is required to know that a relation of ideas is true, it's just understanding.발음듣기

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This is what Hume called the "mere operation of thought."발음듣기

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That's enough to see that it has to be true, and so to know that it's true.발음듣기

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Okay, contrast relations of ideas with another class of claims that Hume called "matters of fact."발음듣기

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For example, as I now make this video, it's raining outside.발음듣기

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Or here's another one: I have a fluffy puppy.발음듣기

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So these claims are true, both of them, but their denials are not inconceivable or contradictory.발음듣기

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The mere operation of thought isn't enough to get us knowledge of their truth.발음듣기

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You could easily imagine that it's sunny outside.발음듣기

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In fact, maybe as you listen to this video, it is.발음듣기

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Or you could imagine that I have no pets at all, including no fluffy puppy, even though, in fact, I do.발음듣기

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So because these claims have denials that aren't contradictory, because you can conceive that they're false, it's not enough to just understand what they mean to see that they're true.발음듣기

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You have to go out and make some observations, see that the world is one way, rather than another way.발음듣기

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So these matters of fact contrast with relations of ideas and what it takes to know them.발음듣기

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This distinction that Hume is getting at, between relations of ideas and matters of fact, is closely related to what was later called "the distinction between the a priori and the a posteriori," by Immanuel Kant.발음듣기

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