Making manuscripts

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Making manuscripts발음듣기

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In the Middle Ages, parchment was used to make the pages of books.발음듣기

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Parchment was made from the skins of animals.발음듣기

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The transition from a fresh skin to a surface suitable for writing was a slow and laborious process.발음듣기

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The parchment maker selected skins of sheep, goats, or calves.발음듣기

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Skins were soaked in limewater for three to ten days to loosen the animal's hair.발음듣기

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The parchment maker then scraped away the hair and any remaining flesh.발음듣기

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After this, the skin was soaked in fresh water to remove the lime, and then stretched tightly on a frame.발음듣기

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A special rounded knife was used to scrape the hide to the desired thickness.발음듣기

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The process of scraping continued over the course of several days.발음듣기

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During this time, the parchment maker continually tightened the tension on the stretching frame while the skin dried.발음듣기

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The result was parchment, a smooth and durable material that could last over a thousand years.발음듣기

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Before parchment could be written on, it had to be specially prepared.발음듣기

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First, the parchment was rubbed with pumice powder to roughen the surface, and then dusted with a sticky powder.발음듣기

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These steps made the surface receptive to inks and colors.발음듣기

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The whole finished skin was then cut down to the size of the pages needed for a particular book.발음듣기

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A big manuscript was assembled from sheets almost as large as a single skin.발음듣기

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For smaller books, the skin was cut into two or more pieces.발음듣기

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The parchment sheets were folded and nested to make gatherings, usually of sixteen or twenty pages.발음듣기

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The vibrant illuminations in a medieval manuscript often overshadow the words on the page.발음듣기

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Yet the writing of the script was as important as the painting of the images.발음듣기

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The tools of a scribe, the person who copied the text onto the page, were simple.발음듣기

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Pens, called quills, were made from the feathers of a bird, which were soaked in water, dried, and hardened with heated sand.발음듣기

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The scribe carved the quill to a rough point, cut a slit to draw ink down, then trimmed the point to the proper width.발음듣기

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The shape of the quill point varied with the style of the lettering being copied.발음듣기

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Scribes made ink from a variety of materials.발음듣기

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Gallnuts, growths found on oak trees, were often used to create a dark black ink.발음듣기

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Black ink was also made by dissolving a common carbon substance.발음듣기

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The resulting ink was called lampblack.발음듣기

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Before the scribe began writing, he ruled the parchment using a straightedge.발음듣기

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Medieval scribes and their patrons prized a regular and elegant script.발음듣기

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If the scribe made an error, he would scratch it out with a penknife.발음듣기

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Because the page was made from parchment, which was very resilient, it could stand many erasures of this type.발음듣기

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An illuminator decorated the pages of a manuscript using paint and precious metals.발음듣기

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He began only after a scribe had finished copying the text.발음듣기

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The illuminator first sketched his design, then added details, such as the features of a figure or the interlacing of a decorated initial.발음듣기

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Thin sheets of precious metals, like gold leaf, were always applied first.발음듣기

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The illuminator put down a base coat, consisting of either a plaster-like substance called gesso, or a gum, as shown here.발음듣기

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Once the gum base dried, the moisture in the illuminator's breath was enough to make the small piece of gold leaf stick to the page.발음듣기

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Then the illuminator brushed away the excess and polished the gold leaf.발음듣기

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After applying the gold leaf, the illuminator painted his design.발음듣기

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Each color was made from a vegetable dye or a mineral substance, ground up and dissolved in liquid.발음듣기

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The illuminator applied the paler shades first, then the darker tones.발음듣기

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Once the illuminator applied black outlines and delicate white highlights to the figures and vines, the illumination was finished.발음듣기

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After the scribes and illuminators had finished writing and decorating the parchment pages, the manuscript was bound.발음듣기

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Groups of folded sheets of parchment, called gatherings, were sewn together with strong linen thread onto flexible supports, such as these narrow leather thongs.발음듣기

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Next, the binder attached end bands, which secured the top and bottom ends of the pages in the spine of the book.발음듣기

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The binder then laced the leather thongs along the spine through channels and tunnels, which had been carved into wood boards.발음듣기

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These boards were the covers of the manuscript.발음듣기

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The thongs could be held in place by wood pegs or iron nails.발음듣기

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The volume was then covered, usually with leather.발음듣기

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Without pressure from the covers to keep the leaves flat, parchment expanded and contracted with changes in temperature and humidity.발음듣기

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Pressure was applied by the addition of clasps or straps, which held the book closed.발음듣기

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The binding of a manuscript could be decorated with any one of a variety of materials.발음듣기

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A manuscript might be covered with leather, stamped or tooled with gold, or covered with silks or velvets.발음듣기

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The most elaborate bindings received sculpted decoration made from precious metals.발음듣기

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The materials of the binding depended on the wealth of the patron, the type of manuscript, and its intended use.발음듣기

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